Irrigation Method  Overhead Irrigation  Centre Pivot Irrigation  Lateral Move Irrigation  Micro Irrigation Overhead Irrigation  Overhead irrigation is also known as sprinkler irrigation. In overhead irrigation water is applied in the form of spray or artificial rain. In overhead irrigation water loss is high. Overhead irrigation have higher evaporation rate. Overhead irrigation method is used when there is no shortage of water. In overhead irrigation power consumption is high.  Center Pivot Irrigation  Center pivot irrigation some time called as central pivot irrigation and also called as water wheel and circle irrigation. Centre pivot irrigation is a method of crop irrigation. Center Pivot Irrigation A device that rotates around a pivot and sprinkles water like artificial rain. In center pivot irrigation power consumption is high. Centre pivot is highly effective on large land fields. Lateral Move Irrigation  Lateral move irrigation is a close cousin of the center pivot. Lateral move

Ventilation in Green House Environment Greenhouse Ventilation The greenhouse ventilation system plays a pivotal role in plant health and crop production.  Many novice horticulturalists do not attribute slow growth, poor yields, or problems with pathogens to an inadequate greenhouse ventilation system.  Most gardeners understand the importance of ventilation systems for temperature control but benefits derived from ventilation systems are multifaceted.  Not only are ventilation systems vital to maintaining environmental conditions but they also directly influence a plant’s ability to perform photosynthesis, uptake essential elements, and complete reproductive cycles (pollination).  Greenhouse ventilation systems serve four imperative functions temperature control,  humidity control,  CO2/oxygen replacement, and  air circulation. Temperature Control Greenhouses trap solar radiation thereby raising the temperature in the environment (the greenhouse effect). If this heat is not removed fro

Types of Pumps Positive Displacement Pumps Dynamic Pumps Centrifugal pumps Submersible pumps Turbine pumps End-suction centrifugal pumps Jet pumps Floating pumps Positive Displacement Pumps Positive displacement pump is also known as PD pump. positive displacement pump displaces or pushes the water from one place to another by mechanical energy. It has two sides – a suction side and a discharge side. The fluid goes into the suction valve and comes out through the outlet valve. They use the piston’s reciprocating, rotary, or linear motion to trap a fixed volume of fluid in a compartment inside the pump, which is then transferred or discharged outside through the nozzle. It operates by simultaneously filling the chamber with the fluid and then displacing it. In positive displacement pumps, a piston or plunger inside a cylinder is the driving element as it moves in reciprocating motion.  The stroke length and, thus, the volume delivered per stroke is adjustable within a 10:1 range.  Range

Selection Criteria Of Pump  Pump selection is crucial to ensuring that the farmer’s irrigation design layout meets the precise requirements for the crop and optimizes irrigation efficiency. These requirements are satisfied if the pump matches the irrigation system, flow pressure is kept low, and controls are  Choosing the Right Irrigation Equipment  A varied range of equipment affects your product in varying ways since quite some factors come into play - they require different amounts of water and water pressure, depending upon their use and build. Thus, choosing your equipment before selecting your water pump is an essential and precautionary step. Choosing the correct irrigation equipment requires you to consider the controller since it plays an important role in switching the water supply on and off, at specified time intervals, and during specific climatic conditions. Consider the water source  Water for irrigation purposes is generally directed from sources such as tube wells, wel

Fermenter Control Batch fermentation is a process where all the substrate and nutrients are added at zero time or soon after inoculation takes place, and the vessel is allowed under a controlled environment to proceed until maximum end product concentration is achieved.  Batch fermentations are the most commonly used and simplest models to study the fermentation activity of colonic microbes.  These batch fermenters are usually anaerobic sealed bottles with pure cultures, defined mixed cultures or fecal slurry, and are used to study the effects of added NSP on the microbes and their fermentation activity.  Batch fermentation of oleaginous microorganisms is generally conducted with a high C/N ratio to induce the extra carbon into lipids accumulation at limiting nitrogen concentration conditions.  batch fermentation were mainly focused on nutritional and physiological parameters.  Batch fermentation is highly dynamic yet a closed system in which all the medium components, except gases suc

  Basics Of Fermentation Fermentation is similar to the kind of respiration that takes place when there isn't enough oxygen present, namely anaerobic respiration. However unlike respiration, which uses pyruvic acid, fermentation leads to the production of different organic molecules like lactic acid, which also leads to ATP. Basic Components Of Fermentation Both types of fermentation require two primary components, a sugar supply and a bacterial culture; alcohol fermentations use forms of yeast, while lactic acid fermentation normally relies on lactic acid bacteria.  Additionally, the environment used to house the fermenting food must be of a suitable temperature, moisture and pH for the bacteria to successfully survive; the environment also normally lacks oxygen, though special cases of aerobic fermentation do exist.

Different Stages Involved In The Dairy Industry Cows are milked using vacuum cups which are attached to the cow's teats. The milk is sent through stainless steel pipes to large refrigerated vats, then stored at 5°C or less. Within 48 hours, milk is taken in tankers to a milk factory where it's pasteurized and homogenized. Pasteurization This technique heats milk to 72°C for no less than 15 seconds, then cooled immediately to destroy any harmful bacteria and micro-organisms. This also extends the shelf life.  Read More. Homogenization Milk is put under pressure through fine nozzles, which evenly disperses fat globules. This stops the cream separating and rising to the top, allowing a more consistent texture and taste. Some manufacturers produce unhomogenized milk for people who prefer the cream to separate and rise to the top of the bottle. Centrifugal separation This removes some or all of the cream to make reduced-fat, low-fat or skim milk. Skim milk solids can be added back t

Pasteurization Process And Related Instrumentation Involved In Dairy Plant Pasteurization Process  Pasteurization is a process that kills pathogens in milk. Pasteurizer is the equipment used for HTST pasteurization. Pasteurizer is also known as plate heat exchanger. Pasteurization process achieved by heating the milk in the pasteurizer to a temperature of minimum 72 °C, holding it at that temperature for 15 seconds and rapidly cooling below 4 °C. Pasteurization involves heating liquids at high temperatures for short amounts of time. Pasteurization kills harmful microbes in milk without affecting the taste or nutritional value (sterilization= all bacteria are destroyed). The process of pasteurization involves heating milk to 71.7°C for at least 15 seconds (and no more than 25 seconds). Because of the nature of the heat treatment it sometimes referred to as the 'High Temperature Short Time' (HTST) process. Once the milk has been heated, it is then cooled very quickly to less than

Flow Diagram For Typical Dairy Plant

Active And Passive Earth Pressures Active earth pressures Active pressure is the condition in which the earth exerts a force on a retaining system and the members tend to move toward the excavation. Passive pressure is a condition in which the retaining system exerts a force on the soil.  When the wall moves away from the backfill, there is a decrease in the pressure on the wall and this decrease continues until a minimum value has reached after which their is no reduction in the pressure and the value will become constant. This kind of pressure is known as active earth pressure. Passive earth pressures When the wall moves towards the back fill, there is an increase in the pressure on the wall and this increase continues until a maximum value has reached after which their is no increase in the pressure and the value will become constant. This kind of pressure is known as passive earth pressure. All retaining walls are usually not placed on the ground surface on the front side but are l

Juice Extraction Plant  The generalized flow chart for preparing fruit juice  Sugar Cane juice extraction plant  Juice Extraction process Heavily grooved crusher rollers break the cane & extract a large part of juice. Revolving knifes cuts the stalk into chips are supplementary to the crusher. The pressing process involves crushing the stalks between the heavy & grooved metal rollers to separate the bagasse. As the cane is crushed, hot water (or a combination of hot water and recovered impure juice) is sprayed onto the crushed cane counter currently as it leaves each mill for diluting. Extracted juice contains 95% or more of the sucrose present. Clarification of Juice The raw juice is dark opaque liquid containing about 15% sucrose and small quantities of glucose, fructose, vegetable proteins, mineral salts, organic acids, colouring matter, gums and fine particles of bagasse suspended in it. Allowed to remain untreated tor some time, it begins to ferment and the sucrose present

Types of Hygrometer Dry & wet bulb hygrometer. (Psychrometer) Hair hygrometer Sling psychrometer. Chilled mirror dew point hygrometer Dry & wet bulb hygrometer. (Psychrometer) When water or ice covers the bulb of a thermometer (wet-bulb), latent heat is removed from the surface of the bulb as the water evaporates, and the wet-bulb temperature becomes lower than the air (dry-bulb) temperature. At a lower humidity, water evaporates more actively, so that the wet-bulb temperature lowers sharply.  The aspirated psychrometer measures humidity by measuring the difference between the dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature. A psychrometer, or a wet and dry-bulb thermometer, consists of two calibrated thermometers, one that is dry and one that is kept moist with distilled water on a sock or wick. At temperatures above the freezing point of water, evaporation of water from the wick lowers the temperature, such that the wet-bulb thermometer will be at a lower temperature than that

Dry & wet bulb hygrometer. (Psychrometer) When water or ice covers the bulb of a thermometer (wet-bulb), latent heat is removed from the surface of the bulb as the water evaporates, and the wet-bulb temperature becomes lower than the air (dry-bulb) temperature. At a lower humidity, water evaporates more actively, so that the wet-bulb temperature lowers sharply.  The aspirated psychrometer measures humidity by measuring the difference between the dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature. A psychrometer, or a wet and dry-bulb thermometer, consists of two calibrated thermometers, one that is dry and one that is kept moist with distilled water on a sock or wick. At temperatures above the freezing point of water, evaporation of water from the wick lowers the temperature, such that the wet-bulb thermometer will be at a lower temperature than that of the dry-bulb thermometer.  When the air temperature is below freezing, however, the wet-bulb must be covered with a thin coating of ice

Soil water contain Measurement using Time Domain Reflectometry Soil water contain Measurement Soil water content is a measurement of the amount of water in a known amount of soil; it can be expressed as % water by weight or volume of soil, or inches of water per foot of soil. Time Domain Reflectometry A time-domain reflectometer (TDR) is an electronic instrument used to determine the characteristics of electrical lines by observing reflected waveforms. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) is an indirect measure of soil water content based on the travel time of a high frequency electromagnetic pulse through the soil; this travel time is used to calculate the permittivity (dielectric constant) of the material.  The TDR probes are inserted directly into the soil for in situ measurement at the desired soil depth. The measurement takes only seconds, and the instrument can be attached to a data logger for ongoing measurements. TDR applied to soil water content determinations is cable radar in whi

Soil Formation And Types Of Soil soil formation  Soil forms continuously, but slowly, from the gradual breakdown of rocks through weathering. Weathering can be a physical, chemical or biological process Physical weathering Breakdown of rocks from the result of a mechanical action. Temperature changes, abrasion (when rocks collide with each other) or frost can all cause rocks to break down. Chemical weathering Breakdown of rocks through a change in their chemical makeup. This can happen when the minerals within rocks react with water, air or other chemicals. Biological weathering The breakdown of rocks by living things. Burrowing animals help water and air get into rock, and plant roots can grow into cracks in the rock, making it split. The accumulation of material through the action of water, wind and gravity also contributes to soil formation. These processes can be very slow, taking many tens of thousands of years. Five main interacting factors affect the formation of soil Parent mat