Irrigation Method  Overhead Irrigation  Centre Pivot Irrigation  Lateral Move Irrigation  Micro Irrigation Overhead Irrigation  Overhead irrigation is also known as sprinkler irrigation. In overhead irrigation water is applied in the form of spray or artificial rain. In overhead irrigation water loss is high. Overhead irrigation have higher evaporation rate. Overhead irrigation method is used when there is no shortage of water. In overhead irrigation power consumption is high.  Center Pivot Irrigation  Center pivot irrigation some time called as central pivot irrigation and also called as water wheel and circle irrigation. Centre pivot irrigation is a method of crop irrigation. Center Pivot Irrigation A device that rotates around a pivot and sprinkles water like artificial rain. In center pivot irrigation power consumption is high. Centre pivot is highly effective on large land fields. Lateral Move Irrigation  Lateral move irrigation is a close cousin of the center pivot. Lateral move

Ventilation in Green House Environment Greenhouse Ventilation The greenhouse ventilation system plays a pivotal role in plant health and crop production.  Many novice horticulturalists do not attribute slow growth, poor yields, or problems with pathogens to an inadequate greenhouse ventilation system.  Most gardeners understand the importance of ventilation systems for temperature control but benefits derived from ventilation systems are multifaceted.  Not only are ventilation systems vital to maintaining environmental conditions but they also directly influence a plant’s ability to perform photosynthesis, uptake essential elements, and complete reproductive cycles (pollination).  Greenhouse ventilation systems serve four imperative functions temperature control,  humidity control,  CO2/oxygen replacement, and  air circulation. Temperature Control Greenhouses trap solar radiation thereby raising the temperature in the environment (the greenhouse effect). If this heat is not removed fro

Types of Pumps Positive Displacement Pumps Dynamic Pumps Centrifugal pumps Submersible pumps Turbine pumps End-suction centrifugal pumps Jet pumps Floating pumps Positive Displacement Pumps Positive displacement pump is also known as PD pump. positive displacement pump displaces or pushes the water from one place to another by mechanical energy. It has two sides – a suction side and a discharge side. The fluid goes into the suction valve and comes out through the outlet valve. They use the piston’s reciprocating, rotary, or linear motion to trap a fixed volume of fluid in a compartment inside the pump, which is then transferred or discharged outside through the nozzle. It operates by simultaneously filling the chamber with the fluid and then displacing it. In positive displacement pumps, a piston or plunger inside a cylinder is the driving element as it moves in reciprocating motion.  The stroke length and, thus, the volume delivered per stroke is adjustable within a 10:1 range.  Range

Selection Criteria Of Pump  Pump selection is crucial to ensuring that the farmer’s irrigation design layout meets the precise requirements for the crop and optimizes irrigation efficiency. These requirements are satisfied if the pump matches the irrigation system, flow pressure is kept low, and controls are  Choosing the Right Irrigation Equipment  A varied range of equipment affects your product in varying ways since quite some factors come into play - they require different amounts of water and water pressure, depending upon their use and build. Thus, choosing your equipment before selecting your water pump is an essential and precautionary step. Choosing the correct irrigation equipment requires you to consider the controller since it plays an important role in switching the water supply on and off, at specified time intervals, and during specific climatic conditions. Consider the water source  Water for irrigation purposes is generally directed from sources such as tube wells, wel

Fermenter Control Batch fermentation is a process where all the substrate and nutrients are added at zero time or soon after inoculation takes place, and the vessel is allowed under a controlled environment to proceed until maximum end product concentration is achieved.  Batch fermentations are the most commonly used and simplest models to study the fermentation activity of colonic microbes.  These batch fermenters are usually anaerobic sealed bottles with pure cultures, defined mixed cultures or fecal slurry, and are used to study the effects of added NSP on the microbes and their fermentation activity.  Batch fermentation of oleaginous microorganisms is generally conducted with a high C/N ratio to induce the extra carbon into lipids accumulation at limiting nitrogen concentration conditions.  batch fermentation were mainly focused on nutritional and physiological parameters.  Batch fermentation is highly dynamic yet a closed system in which all the medium components, except gases suc

  Basics Of Fermentation Fermentation is similar to the kind of respiration that takes place when there isn't enough oxygen present, namely anaerobic respiration. However unlike respiration, which uses pyruvic acid, fermentation leads to the production of different organic molecules like lactic acid, which also leads to ATP. Basic Components Of Fermentation Both types of fermentation require two primary components, a sugar supply and a bacterial culture; alcohol fermentations use forms of yeast, while lactic acid fermentation normally relies on lactic acid bacteria.  Additionally, the environment used to house the fermenting food must be of a suitable temperature, moisture and pH for the bacteria to successfully survive; the environment also normally lacks oxygen, though special cases of aerobic fermentation do exist.

Different Stages Involved In The Dairy Industry Cows are milked using vacuum cups which are attached to the cow's teats. The milk is sent through stainless steel pipes to large refrigerated vats, then stored at 5°C or less. Within 48 hours, milk is taken in tankers to a milk factory where it's pasteurized and homogenized. Pasteurization This technique heats milk to 72°C for no less than 15 seconds, then cooled immediately to destroy any harmful bacteria and micro-organisms. This also extends the shelf life.  Read More. Homogenization Milk is put under pressure through fine nozzles, which evenly disperses fat globules. This stops the cream separating and rising to the top, allowing a more consistent texture and taste. Some manufacturers produce unhomogenized milk for people who prefer the cream to separate and rise to the top of the bottle. Centrifugal separation This removes some or all of the cream to make reduced-fat, low-fat or skim milk. Skim milk solids can be added back t

Pasteurization Process And Related Instrumentation Involved In Dairy Plant Pasteurization Process  Pasteurization is a process that kills pathogens in milk. Pasteurizer is the equipment used for HTST pasteurization. Pasteurizer is also known as plate heat exchanger. Pasteurization process achieved by heating the milk in the pasteurizer to a temperature of minimum 72 °C, holding it at that temperature for 15 seconds and rapidly cooling below 4 °C. Pasteurization involves heating liquids at high temperatures for short amounts of time. Pasteurization kills harmful microbes in milk without affecting the taste or nutritional value (sterilization= all bacteria are destroyed). The process of pasteurization involves heating milk to 71.7°C for at least 15 seconds (and no more than 25 seconds). Because of the nature of the heat treatment it sometimes referred to as the 'High Temperature Short Time' (HTST) process. Once the milk has been heated, it is then cooled very quickly to less than

Flow Diagram For Typical Dairy Plant

Active And Passive Earth Pressures Active earth pressures Active pressure is the condition in which the earth exerts a force on a retaining system and the members tend to move toward the excavation. Passive pressure is a condition in which the retaining system exerts a force on the soil.  When the wall moves away from the backfill, there is a decrease in the pressure on the wall and this decrease continues until a minimum value has reached after which their is no reduction in the pressure and the value will become constant. This kind of pressure is known as active earth pressure. Passive earth pressures When the wall moves towards the back fill, there is an increase in the pressure on the wall and this increase continues until a maximum value has reached after which their is no increase in the pressure and the value will become constant. This kind of pressure is known as passive earth pressure. All retaining walls are usually not placed on the ground surface on the front side but are l

Juice Extraction Plant  The generalized flow chart for preparing fruit juice  Sugar Cane juice extraction plant  Juice Extraction process Heavily grooved crusher rollers break the cane & extract a large part of juice. Revolving knifes cuts the stalk into chips are supplementary to the crusher. The pressing process involves crushing the stalks between the heavy & grooved metal rollers to separate the bagasse. As the cane is crushed, hot water (or a combination of hot water and recovered impure juice) is sprayed onto the crushed cane counter currently as it leaves each mill for diluting. Extracted juice contains 95% or more of the sucrose present. Clarification of Juice The raw juice is dark opaque liquid containing about 15% sucrose and small quantities of glucose, fructose, vegetable proteins, mineral salts, organic acids, colouring matter, gums and fine particles of bagasse suspended in it. Allowed to remain untreated tor some time, it begins to ferment and the sucrose present

Types of Hygrometer Dry & wet bulb hygrometer. (Psychrometer) Hair hygrometer Sling psychrometer. Chilled mirror dew point hygrometer Dry & wet bulb hygrometer. (Psychrometer) When water or ice covers the bulb of a thermometer (wet-bulb), latent heat is removed from the surface of the bulb as the water evaporates, and the wet-bulb temperature becomes lower than the air (dry-bulb) temperature. At a lower humidity, water evaporates more actively, so that the wet-bulb temperature lowers sharply.  The aspirated psychrometer measures humidity by measuring the difference between the dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature. A psychrometer, or a wet and dry-bulb thermometer, consists of two calibrated thermometers, one that is dry and one that is kept moist with distilled water on a sock or wick. At temperatures above the freezing point of water, evaporation of water from the wick lowers the temperature, such that the wet-bulb thermometer will be at a lower temperature than that

Dry & wet bulb hygrometer. (Psychrometer) When water or ice covers the bulb of a thermometer (wet-bulb), latent heat is removed from the surface of the bulb as the water evaporates, and the wet-bulb temperature becomes lower than the air (dry-bulb) temperature. At a lower humidity, water evaporates more actively, so that the wet-bulb temperature lowers sharply.  The aspirated psychrometer measures humidity by measuring the difference between the dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature. A psychrometer, or a wet and dry-bulb thermometer, consists of two calibrated thermometers, one that is dry and one that is kept moist with distilled water on a sock or wick. At temperatures above the freezing point of water, evaporation of water from the wick lowers the temperature, such that the wet-bulb thermometer will be at a lower temperature than that of the dry-bulb thermometer.  When the air temperature is below freezing, however, the wet-bulb must be covered with a thin coating of ice

Soil water contain Measurement using Time Domain Reflectometry Soil water contain Measurement Soil water content is a measurement of the amount of water in a known amount of soil; it can be expressed as % water by weight or volume of soil, or inches of water per foot of soil. Time Domain Reflectometry A time-domain reflectometer (TDR) is an electronic instrument used to determine the characteristics of electrical lines by observing reflected waveforms. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) is an indirect measure of soil water content based on the travel time of a high frequency electromagnetic pulse through the soil; this travel time is used to calculate the permittivity (dielectric constant) of the material.  The TDR probes are inserted directly into the soil for in situ measurement at the desired soil depth. The measurement takes only seconds, and the instrument can be attached to a data logger for ongoing measurements. TDR applied to soil water content determinations is cable radar in whi

Soil Formation And Types Of Soil soil formation  Soil forms continuously, but slowly, from the gradual breakdown of rocks through weathering. Weathering can be a physical, chemical or biological process Physical weathering Breakdown of rocks from the result of a mechanical action. Temperature changes, abrasion (when rocks collide with each other) or frost can all cause rocks to break down. Chemical weathering Breakdown of rocks through a change in their chemical makeup. This can happen when the minerals within rocks react with water, air or other chemicals. Biological weathering The breakdown of rocks by living things. Burrowing animals help water and air get into rock, and plant roots can grow into cracks in the rock, making it split. The accumulation of material through the action of water, wind and gravity also contributes to soil formation. These processes can be very slow, taking many tens of thousands of years. Five main interacting factors affect the formation of soil Parent mat

Permeability Permeability is the property of a material to allow fluids (such as water, water vapor or oil) to diffuse through it to another medium without being chemically or physically affected. Permeability causes deterioration of material longevity and acceleration of the corrosion process. It is defined as the ease with which water flows through the soil. Fine grained materials are less permeable. All organic forms of barrier protection are permeable to some degree, and once the protective coating is penetrated, its corrosion resistance is compromised. When coating deteriorates, its permeability to oxygen or moisture increases, and as a result the corrosion rate increases. Therefore, permeability leads to coating failure. Permeability is a measure of how easy it is for water, air and other substances to enter a material. Concrete contains pores that allow these substances to enter easily. Larger pores allow easier entry, while smaller pores decrease the rate at which these substan

Mechanical Properties of Soil Soil is a granular medium that varies in composition from organic peat to gravel and that may contain various amounts of water. The soil physical system is continually being subjected to external forces and is, therefore, dynamic. These external forces may be environmental (climate, plants, animals, and micro-organisms) or mechanical (forces applied by man using some type of machine). The specific reaction of the soil to these forces is of interest. The forces provide the means for changing soil from one condition into another and the reaction indicates the kind and degree of change. If one is to be able either to maintain a soil condition or to change it to a more suitable condition, he must first have an understanding of soil behavior; this behavior must eventually be properly described. Soil conditions and properties, widely varying types of forces, and widely varying types of behavior must all be included in any description before the description can b

Anemometer   An anemometer is a device used for measuring wind speed and direction.  An anemometer is an instrument used to measure the speed of the wind, which is a common weather station instrument, or to calculate any form of current gas. The basic classification of anemometers depends on the measurement of the velocity of wind and the measurement of the pressure of the wind. The 5 major types of anemometer are Cup anemometer Hotwire anemometer Windmill anemometer Laser Doppler anemometer Sonic anemometer The anemometer definition is a device used to measure wind speed. Anemometers report wind speed in miles per hour (mph), kilometers per hour (kph), meters per second (m/s), or knots. Anemometers measure wind speed by the amount of wind pressure against a surface, such as a cup or a propeller, or by using sonic pulses. A mechanical anemometer contains a wheel with cups or a propeller at the end of the spokes of the wheel. One of them contains a magnet.  Each time the magnet passes a

Video Management System (VMS)  Video management system is used in CCTV system. Video management system enable users to record and view video from CCTV. Video management system also known as video management software. Video management system collect video from camera and stores to storage device and also used in security system. Video management system can be the software components of a network video recording (NVR) and digital video recording (DVR). Digital Video Recorder (DVR) Digital video recording is a electrical device. Record video in digital format to a disk drive, USB flash drive, SD memory card, SSC or other local networked mass storage device . Network Video Recorder (NVR) Network video recorder is specialized computer system that include a software program. Network video recorder record video in digital format. Network video recorder store data and remote viewing. Network video recorder store image in HD format.

CCTV  Closed circuit television cameras (CCTV) used monitor or record image in specific location . CCTV store image in video format also CCTV provide security. CCTV monitoring image in real time in remote location and also known as video surveillance. CCTV monitor activity record information in video format. CCTV Camera Types Color and Monochrome Camera Camera Shape  Color and Monochrome Camera Color Camera  Color camera is send color image. Color camera is high cost compare to monochrome camera. Monochrome Camera  Monochrome camera is also called as black and white camera. Monochrome camera send image in black and white format. Camera Shape   Camera shape is many different types like cylindrical and box type, dome type, combination dome type .

Access Control System Access control system is electrical system. Access control system is automated approval for authorized person to enter area. Access control system is a advance security system for building and rooms. Access control system provide only authorize person access and this system is fully automatic system.  Access control system is most commonly used in door control. Access control system is fixable control system. Different example of access control system like bio-metric, RFID, door controllers.  Components of Access Control System Access Cards  Card reader  Keypads  Electrical Lock Alarm System  Field Panel  Access Control Software Access Cards  Access card is also known as ID card. Access card is a electronic key. Card reader  Card reader is read access card. Deck line or grant access. Open and closed door using control panel or card data. Keypads  Keypads also known as access control keypads. Keypads is another method for entry. Keypads is a numarical keypads used

Differentiate Between Water Tube and Fire Tube Boilers? Fire Tube Boiler  Hot flue gases flow inside the tube and water outside the tube. This boiler are generally internally fired. This boiler pressure limited to 20 bar. Fire tube boiler is low rate of steam production .  Fire tube boiler not suitable for large power plant. Fire tube boiler is high pressure and less risk. Fire tube boiler difficult to construct  Water Tube Boiler Water tube boiler is water flow inside the turbine and hot flue gases outside the tube. Water tube boiler are generally externally fired. These boiler pressure limited to 100 bar. Water tube boiler is higher rate of steam production  Water tube boiler is suitable for large power plant. Water tube boiler is high boiler pressure and high risk. Water tube boiler simple in construction 

Fire Alarm System (FAS)  Fire is the effect of the process of combustion of special type of chemical reaction. Chemical reaction occur in reaction of fire, fuel and oxygen Fire alarm system is warns people when smoke and fire is detected and ensure ultimate safety. Fire alarm system is used to keep people safe. Fire alarm system is designed to alerts us to take action in emergency, fire and smoke detected. Fire alarm system is active fire protection system that control all fire alarm module. Fire alarm system control panel linked to number of fire detection lines and manual call points. Fire alarm system is automatic function to detect fire. Fire alarm system receive signal from fire sensors and automatic transmit in to fire alarm panel. Fire alarm system having number of devices and devices work together. Fire alarm system detect a fire at an early stage and alerting and evacuating occupants. Fire alarm system is active auxiliary function. Fire alarm system is identifying and guiding

Hot Water System  Hot Water System use hot water to convey heat to a conditioned space The main components used in hot water system are  Boiler Terminal Equipment Water valve Expansion Tank  Two type boiler used in hot water system  Fire Tube Boiler  Water Tube Boiler  Fire Tube Boiler  Hot flue gases flow inside the tube and water outside the tube. This boiler are generally internally fired. This boiler pressure limited to 20 bar. Fire tube boiler is low rate of steam production .  Fire tube boiler not suitable for large power plant. Fire tube boiler is high pressure and less risk. Fire tube boiler difficult to construct  Water Tube Boiler Water tube boiler is water flow inside the turbine and hot flue gases outside the tube. Water tube boiler are generally externally fired. These boiler pressure limited to 100 bar. Water tube boiler is higher rate of steam production  Water tube boiler is suitable for large power plant. Water tube boiler is high boiler pressure and high risk. Water t

Significance of humidifier in AHU Humidification is often necessary in colder climates where continuous heating will make the air drier, resulting in uncomfortable air quality and increased  static electricity.  Various types of humidification may be used Evaporative dry air blown over a reservoir will evaporate some of the water. The rate of evaporation can be increased by spraying the water onto baffles in the air stream.  Vaporizer steam or vapor from a boiler is blown directly into the air stream.  Spray mist water is diffused either by a nozzle or other mechanical means into fine droplets and carried by the air.  Ultrasonic A tray of fresh water in the airstream is excited by an ultrasonic device forming a fog or water mist.  Wetted medium A fine fibrous medium in the airstream is kept moist with fresh water from a header pipe with a series of small outlets. As the air passes through the medium it entrains the water in fine droplets. This type of humidifier can quickly clog if the

Significance of damper in AHU A damper is a valve or plate that stops or regulates the flow of air inside a duct, chimney, VAV box, air handler, or other air-handling equipment. damper may be used to cut off central air conditioning (heating or cooling) to an unused room, or to regulate it for room-by-room temperature and climate control. Its operation can be manual or automatic. Manual dampers are turned by a handle on the outside of a duct. Automatic dampers are used to regulate airflow constantly and are operated by electric or pneumatic motors, in turn controlled by a thermostat or building automation system. Automatic or motorized dampers may also be controlled by a solenoid, and the degree of air-flow calibrated, perhaps according to signals from the thermostat going to the actuator of the damper in order to modulate the flow of air-conditioned air in order to effect climate control. An AHU typically has dampers that are used to control the amount of out- door air that enters the

Refrigeration Cycle The refrigeration cycle, sometimes called a heat pump cycle, is a means of routing heat away from the area you want to cool. This is accomplished by manipulating the pressure of the working refrigerant (air, water, synthetic refrigerants, etc.) through a cycle of compression and expansion.   Refrigeration, or cooling process, is the removal of unwanted heat from a selected object, substance, or space and its transfer to another object, substance, or space. Removal of heat lowers the temperature and may be accomplished by use of ice, snow, chilled water or mechanical refrigeration. The 4 main components of refrigeration cycle compressor condenser expansion device (expansion valve) evaporator Compressor Compression is the first step in the refrigeration cycle, and a compressor is the piece of equipment that increases the pressure of the working gas. Refrigerant enters the compressor as low-pressure, low-temperature gas, and leaves the compressor as a high-pressure, hi

VAV System In Variable Air Volume (VAV) systems, supply of cool air increases as the cooling load increases, and the air supply decreases as the load decreases. VAV systems are the most modern, energy efficient all air systems available for comfort air conditioning. VAV systems require less fan capacity than a comparable constant volume system because with VAV only the required air is used. Control of air flow in a VAV system is accomplished through an electronic device, which regulate the amount of supply air to the space in response to a proportional room/space temperature controller. Series Fan Powered VAV System In a series fan-powered variable air volume (VAV) system, each zone is conditioned by a box with a small fan that draws-in plenum return air and mixes it with supply air from a primary system. The primary system is similar to variable air volume (VAV), with the primary air supplied at a fixed temperature. Series fan-powered systems provide each zone with variable temperatur